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	<seo title="Brain enhancement" titlemode="append" keywords="brain training, chemical manipulation, hormone manipulation, gene modification, deep brain stimulation, transcranial stimulation, tACS, tDCS, tPCS, tRNS, TMS, TIBS, optogenetics, light therapy, nootropics, Google effect, neuroprosthetics, biofeedback, neurofeedback, therapeutic games, Kevin Wilcoxon" description="Summary of methods for enhancing cognition"></seo>		<seo title="Brain enhancement" titlemode="append" keywords="brain training, chemical manipulation, hormone manipulation, gene modification, deep brain stimulation, transcranial stimulation, tACS, tDCS, tPCS, tRNS, TMS, TIBS, optogenetics, light therapy, nootropics, Google effect, neuroprosthetics, biofeedback, neurofeedback, therapeutic games, Kevin Wilcoxon" description="Summary of methods for enhancing cognition"></seo>
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en>Thomas Eyre: Fixed images and links

2018-06-19T00:48:10Z

Fixed images and links

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:48, 19 June 2018
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	<seo title="Brain enhancement" titlemode="append" keywords="brain training, chemical manipulation, hormone manipulation, gene modification, deep brain stimulation, transcranial stimulation, tACS, tDCS, tPCS, tRNS, TMS, TIBS, optogenetics, light therapy, nootropics, Google effect, neuroprosthetics, biofeedback, neurofeedback, therapeutic games, Kevin Wilcoxon" description="Summary of methods for enhancing cognition"></seo>		<seo title="Brain enhancement" titlemode="append" keywords="brain training, chemical manipulation, hormone manipulation, gene modification, deep brain stimulation, transcranial stimulation, tACS, tDCS, tPCS, tRNS, TMS, TIBS, optogenetics, light therapy, nootropics, Google effect, neuroprosthetics, biofeedback, neurofeedback, therapeutic games, Kevin Wilcoxon" description="Summary of methods for enhancing cognition"></seo>
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	===What does work===		===What does work===
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	Given the lack of far transfer of learned skills and the lack of effect on general cognition, training games and exercises may still have their place. Recent research has focused on more limited, and more promising, applications of brain training focused on specific executive functions. Refer to [[~~Processes supporting learning~~#Memory\|Memory]] for more on the subject. There are two general conclusions from the research: positive effects are seen for '''''near transfer''''' tasks; those closely related to the trained tasks (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Simons et al., 2016). Second, repeated practice is key (Diamond, 2013). The most demanding tasks and task conditions - pushing individual limits - are the most effective.		Given the lack of far transfer of learned skills and the lack of effect on general cognition, training games and exercises may still have their place. Recent research has focused on more limited, and more promising, applications of brain training focused on specific executive functions. Refer to [[ELearning/Foundations/Processes_supporting_learning#Memory\|Memory]] for more on the subject. There are two general conclusions from the research: positive effects are seen for '''''near transfer''''' tasks; those closely related to the trained tasks (Sala & Gobet, 2017; Simons et al., 2016). Second, repeated practice is key (Diamond, 2013). The most demanding tasks and task conditions - pushing individual limits - are the most effective.
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	<span style="font-size: 150%;">Memory training</span>		<span style="font-size: 150%;">Memory training</span>
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	<span style="font-size: 150%;">Cognitive reasoning training</span>		<span style="font-size: 150%;">Cognitive reasoning training</span>
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	Chapman et al. (2017) report on a pilot program, involving older adults (ages 56-75), aimed at improving insight and innovative thinking. The authors define innovative thinking as the ability to "synthesize complex information and generate multiple interpretations; the sort of thinking that reinforces and preserves complex decision-making, intellect, and psychological well-being." Training resulted in significantly higher innovations scores (average 27% performance gain) and increased connectivity between components of the central executive network and the default mode network (see [[PhysicalBrain#Other important networks\|Neural networks]]).		Chapman et al. (2017) report on a pilot program, involving older adults (ages 56-75), aimed at improving insight and innovative thinking. The authors define innovative thinking as the ability to "synthesize complex information and generate multiple interpretations; the sort of thinking that reinforces and preserves complex decision-making, intellect, and psychological well-being." Training resulted in significantly higher innovations scores (average 27% performance gain) and increased connectivity between components of the central executive network and the default mode network (see [[ELearning/Foundations/PhysicalBrain#Other important networks\|Neural networks]]).
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	The training regimen, called the Strategic Memory Advanced Reasoning Training (SMART), includes learning cognitive strategies that foster attention, reasoning, and broad based perspective thinking. It involves one hour of training each week, followed by two hours of homework over 12 weeks. The authors conclude that these results add to a growing body of evidence showing that older adults benefit from different forms of cognitive training.		The training regimen, called the Strategic Memory Advanced Reasoning Training (SMART), includes learning cognitive strategies that foster attention, reasoning, and broad based perspective thinking. It involves one hour of training each week, followed by two hours of homework over 12 weeks. The authors conclude that these results add to a growing body of evidence showing that older adults benefit from different forms of cognitive training.
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	The oldest method of brain manipulation, beginning with the depressant alcohol, which slows brain functioning, and hallucinogens like peyote, used in ancient religious ceremonies. Hallucinogenic drugs directly affect the serotonin receptors, resulting in a complex pattern of neuronal activity producing sensory distortions and hallucinations. Caffeine, amphetamines and other stimulants raise levels of dopamine, increasing alertness and focus, elevating mood and increasing motor activity. Caffeine remains a favorite of learners to increase alertness and attention. Amphetamines, at therapeutic doses, increase cognitive control and are used to treat ADHD, among others. Prescribing is highly restrictive due to its high potential for addiction.		The oldest method of brain manipulation, beginning with the depressant alcohol, which slows brain functioning, and hallucinogens like peyote, used in ancient religious ceremonies. Hallucinogenic drugs directly affect the serotonin receptors, resulting in a complex pattern of neuronal activity producing sensory distortions and hallucinations. Caffeine, amphetamines and other stimulants raise levels of dopamine, increasing alertness and focus, elevating mood and increasing motor activity. Caffeine remains a favorite of learners to increase alertness and attention. Amphetamines, at therapeutic doses, increase cognitive control and are used to treat ADHD, among others. Prescribing is highly restrictive due to its high potential for addiction.
	</p><p>		</p><p>
	Kaplan et al. (2017) report on efforts to find chemical compounds that help spur CREB into action (see [[PhysicalBrain#Genetics\|Genetics]]). One compound, called HT-0411, shows promise. HT-0411 doesn't directly activate CREB, but does so indirectly by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase B, which modulates dopamine and ultimately leads to CREB-mediated gene expression. In memory tests, animals that received the HT-0411 molecule scored much higher than the control group, and they showed no signs of behavioral side effects such as changes in anxiety levels.		Kaplan et al. (2017) report on efforts to find chemical compounds that help spur CREB into action (see [[ELearning/Foundations/PhysicalBrain#Genetics\|Genetics]]). One compound, called HT-0411, shows promise. HT-0411 doesn't directly activate CREB, but does so indirectly by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase B, which modulates dopamine and ultimately leads to CREB-mediated gene expression. In memory tests, animals that received the HT-0411 molecule scored much higher than the control group, and they showed no signs of behavioral side effects such as changes in anxiety levels.
	</p><p>		</p><p>
	Research shows that chemical manipulation of 5-HT neuropeptide formation within hippocampus neurons triggers the formation of new receptors, enhancing memory and learning ability (Gülpınar & Yegen, 2004), acting on the neurotransmitter serotonin. DBI neuropeptides boost the proliferation of neural stem cells and neural progenitor cells (Dumitru et al., 2017), and act on the GABA neurotransmitter. The net result of both processes include increased cognitive performance and memory storage in the hippocampus.		Research shows that chemical manipulation of 5-HT neuropeptide formation within hippocampus neurons triggers the formation of new receptors, enhancing memory and learning ability (Gülpınar & Yegen, 2004), acting on the neurotransmitter serotonin. DBI neuropeptides boost the proliferation of neural stem cells and neural progenitor cells (Dumitru et al., 2017), and act on the GABA neurotransmitter. The net result of both processes include increased cognitive performance and memory storage in the hippocampus.
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	===Transcranial stimulation===		===Transcranial stimulation===
	</p><p>		</p><p>[[File:TMS2.jpg\|thumb\|400x400px\|<center>''2. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)''</center>]]Transcranial stimulation transmits targeted signals through the scalp into the uppermost layers of the cortex, and comes in three "flavors": (1) electrical current, (2) magnetic stimulation, and (3) infrared stimulation.
	[[~~Image~~:~~TMS~~.jpg\|thumb\|~~400px~~\|<center>''2. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)''</center>]]
	Transcranial stimulation transmits targeted signals through the scalp into the uppermost layers of the cortex, and comes in three "flavors": (1) electrical current, (2) magnetic stimulation, and (3) infrared stimulation.
	* '''''Transcranial alternating current simulation''''' (tACS), which produces a constant electrical current flow back and forth between electrodes.		* '''''Transcranial alternating current simulation''''' (tACS), which produces a constant electrical current flow back and forth between electrodes.
	* '''''Transcranial direct current simulation''''' (tDCS), using low-intensity direct current between electrodes.		* '''''Transcranial direct current simulation''''' (tDCS), using low-intensity direct current between electrodes.
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	{\| ~~border="1"~~ cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"		{\| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1" align="center"
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	\| '''Method'''		\| '''Method'''
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	'''''Neurofeedback''''' focuses on providing audio and/or visual feedback of neuronal firing within the brain, and includes EEG (electroencephalogram) and real-time fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). Keynan et al. (2016) demonstrated the use of EEG to modulate the firing of the amygdala to control their emotional responses to external stimuli. Using a nanowire to reach the deeply embedded amygdala, Keynan had healthy subjects listen to an auditory signal reflecting amygdala activity and to use any method they chose (e.g., meditation, slow breathing) to slow the signal and thus amygdala firing. fMRI imaging confirmed the lowered activity. Ossadtchi et al. (2017) demonstrated that individuals can be trained to enter an alpha state (where alpha waves predominate), associated with relaxation and reduced stress, using ten two-minute sessions over two days. Feedback came in the form of a screen that changed colors as alpha waves increased.		'''''Neurofeedback''''' focuses on providing audio and/or visual feedback of neuronal firing within the brain, and includes EEG (electroencephalogram) and real-time fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). Keynan et al. (2016) demonstrated the use of EEG to modulate the firing of the amygdala to control their emotional responses to external stimuli. Using a nanowire to reach the deeply embedded amygdala, Keynan had healthy subjects listen to an auditory signal reflecting amygdala activity and to use any method they chose (e.g., meditation, slow breathing) to slow the signal and thus amygdala firing. fMRI imaging confirmed the lowered activity. Ossadtchi et al. (2017) demonstrated that individuals can be trained to enter an alpha state (where alpha waves predominate), associated with relaxation and reduced stress, using ten two-minute sessions over two days. Feedback came in the form of a screen that changed colors as alpha waves increased.
	</p><p>		</p><p>
	Other scientists have demonstrated how to manipulate specific neural circuits using thoughts, imagery, and fMRI neurofeedback. (MacInnes, et al. (2016) demonstrated a technique that moves beyond using EEG, which produces only a rough picture of brain activity, to fMRI allowing for more precise localized measurements. In their experiment, researchers provided real-time fMRI imaging of an area of the midbrain called the ventral tegmentum, a dopamine producing area of the midbrain projecting into the neocortex and limbic system, and known to activate in the presence of rewards, thus playing an important role in motivation. Participants trained using the fMRI imaging until they were able to increase and decrease the activity of the ventral tegmentum at will. Once practiced, they were able to continue this voluntary manipulation without the visual feedback.		Other scientists have demonstrated how to manipulate specific neural circuits using thoughts, imagery, and fMRI neurofeedback. (MacInnes, et al. (2016) demonstrated a technique that moves beyond using EEG, which produces only a rough picture of brain activity, to fMRI allowing for more precise localized measurements. In their experiment, researchers provided real-time fMRI imaging of an area of the midbrain called the ventral tegmentum, a dopamine producing area of the midbrain projecting into the neocortex and limbic system, and known to activate in the presence of rewards, thus playing an important role in motivation. Participants trained using the fMRI imaging until they were able to increase and decrease the activity of the ventral tegmentum at will. Once practiced, they were able to continue this voluntary manipulation without the visual feedback. [[File:Neurofeedback2.jpg\|thumb\|300x300px\|<center>''4. Neurofeedback training for ADHD''</center>]]</p><p>
	[[~~Image~~:~~Neurofeedback~~.jpg\|thumb\|~~300px~~\|<center>''4. Neurofeedback training for ADHD''</center>]]
	</p><p>
	Treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with various neurofeedback protocols has been an active area of research. As recently as 2014, the National Institutes of Health proclaimed that it is no better than chance. This has not slowed additional research. For example, Mohagheghi et al. (2017) found two protocols to significantly (p<0.001) alleviate the symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, commission errors - turning attention to nontargeted stimuli, and omission errors - failing to attend to targeted stimuli) for up to eight weeks following training, with one difference. One protocol trained subjects to suppress theta wave activity and enhance beta activity (theta/beta), while the other focused on theta suppression and and alpha enhancement (theta/alpha). The theta/alpha protocol was more effective at decreasing omission errors.		Treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with various neurofeedback protocols has been an active area of research. As recently as 2014, the National Institutes of Health proclaimed that it is no better than chance. This has not slowed additional research. For example, Mohagheghi et al. (2017) found two protocols to significantly (p<0.001) alleviate the symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, commission errors - turning attention to nontargeted stimuli, and omission errors - failing to attend to targeted stimuli) for up to eight weeks following training, with one difference. One protocol trained subjects to suppress theta wave activity and enhance beta activity (theta/beta), while the other focused on theta suppression and and alpha enhancement (theta/alpha). The theta/alpha protocol was more effective at decreasing omission errors.
	</p><p>		</p><p>

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en>Klwilcoxon: /* What does work */

2018-04-03T20:18:50Z

What does work

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